Foundation of Literary Critisism
Name: Malek Muskan Naushadbhai
College: Maharanishree Nandkuverba Mahila Arts And Commerce College
Year: T. Y. B. A.
Sem:6
Subject : Foundation of Literary Critisism
Topic: Literary Theory
Assignment:Home assignment, class assignment, essay writing
Submitted to : Shivani Ma'am
Class assignment
Topic: Core concepts of literary theory: Text, Author, Reader and concept
Introduction
In literary theory, the relationship between the Author, Text, Reader, and Context (often called the "Universe" or "World") forms the foundational framework for all interpretation. Most theoretical schools are defined by which of these four "poles" they prioritize as the primary source of meaning.
The Four Elements of Interpretation
This model was famously codified by scholar M.H. Abrams in his "Fourfold Model," which visualizes the literary work at the center of these three external factors.
1. The Author (The Artist)
Early criticism viewed the author as the "sovereign source" of meaning. Expressive theories treat the text as a "lamp" that illuminates the author's inner soul and genius.
The "Death of the Author": Post-structuralists like Roland Barthes argued that once a text is written, the author's intent no longer matters; the text belongs to the language and the reader.
Example:
Hamlet by William Shakespeare
A Formalist reading focuses on imagery of decay (“Something is rotten in the state of Denmark”).
A psychoanalytic reading sees Hamlet’s hesitation as linked to unconscious desires.
A feminist reading examines the treatment of Ophelia.
2. The Text (The Work)
Objective theories treat the text as an autonomous, self-sufficient object.
Close Reading: Pioneered by New Criticism, this method ignores the author’s life and the reader’s emotions to focus strictly on "the words on the page".
Internal Coherence: The meaning is found in the internal tensions and patterns of the writing itself, not in its relationship to the real world.
Proposed by Roland Barthes, this theory argues:
The author's intentions do not control the meaning of a text.
Example:
Frankenstein by Mary Shelley
3. The Reader (The Audience)
Pragmatic theories focus on the effect a text has on its audience.
Meaning-Making: In Reader-Response Theory, a text is just "ink on paper" until a reader interacts with it. The "literary work" exists in the space between the text and the reader's subjectivity.
Subjectivity: Different readers will produce different meanings based on their unique backgrounds and "interpretive communities".
Key theorists:
- Wolfgang Iser
- Stanley Fish
Example:
The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald
A 1920s reader might see it as a tragic love story.
A modern reader may focus on capitalism and the American Dream. However a Marxist reader sees class conflict.
4. The Context (The Universe/World)
Mimetic theories see literature as a "mirror" reflecting the real world (mimesis).
Historical Context: Modern schools like New Historicism argue that a text cannot be understood outside the power structures and social discourses of the time it was written.
Socio-Cultural Lenses: Marxism and Feminism examine how the text is "embedded" in economic and gender-based realities, often acting as a product of its culture rather than an individual author.
Examples
Historical Context: 1984 by George Orwell.
Written after WWII. Reflects fears of totalitarian regimes like Nazi Germany and Stalinist Russia.
Social & Political Context : Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe.
Reflects colonialism in Nigeria. Responds to European portrayals of Africa.
Cultural Context: Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen.
Marriage and inheritance laws shaped women’s lives.Social class determined marriage prospects.
Home Assignment
Topic: Poetics by Aristotle (concepts of Tragedy)
Introduction :
Aristotle's Poetics (Ancient Greek:335 BCE) is the earliest surviving work of Greek dramatic theory and the first extant philosophical treatise to solely focus on literary theory. In this text, Aristotle offers an account of which refers to poetry or, more literally, "the poetic art," deriving from the term for "poet, author, maker".
Aristotle divides the art of poetry into verse, drama (comedy, tragedy, and the satyr play), lyric poetry, and epic poetry. The genres all share the function of mimesis, but differ in:
- Musical rhythm, harmony, meter, and melody;
- The goodness of the characters; and
- The mode of storytelling.
Aristotle’s Definition of Tragedy:
Aristotle defines tragedy in the following way:
“Tragedy is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude; in language embellished with each kind of artistic ornament; the several kinds being found in separate parts of the play; in the form of action, not of narrative; through pity and fear effecting the proper purgation (catharsis) of these emotions.”
Tragedy as Imitation (Mimesis)
According to Aristotle, tragedy is a form of imitation. By imitation, he does not mean copying reality exactly. Instead, tragedy represents human actions, choices, and consequences in a realistic and meaningful way.
Tragedy imitates life, but it presents life in a heightened and organized form, showing important actions that reveal universal truths about human nature, such as suffering, pride, error, and fate.
Serious, Complete, and of Certain Magnitude
A tragic action must be serious. This means it should deal with important issues like life, death, moral conflict, destiny, or suffering. Tragedy does not deal with trivial or comic matters.
The action must also be complete, meaning it should have a clear beginning, middle, and end.
Nothing unnecessary should be included, and nothing essential should be missing.
By magnitude, Aristotle means that the action should be of proper length and importance. It should not be too short to be insignificant, nor too long to lose unity and emotional impact.
Language Embellished with Artistic Ornament
Aristotle states that tragedy uses elevated and artistic language. This includes rhythm, harmony, and poetic diction. Different parts of the play use different kinds of language. For example, dialogue may be written in verse, while choral songs use music and rhythm. This artistic language adds beauty and emotional
depth to the tragedy.
Tragedy Presented in Action, Not Narrative
One important feature of tragedy is that it is acted on stage, not narrated like an epic poem. The characters perform the actions directly in front of the audience. Because of this, tragedy has a stronger emotional impact. The audience sees suffering and conflict happening live, which increases their emotional involvement.
The Aim of Tragedy: Pity and Fear
According to Aristotle, tragedy arouses two main emotions in the audience:
Pity is felt when we see a good character suffer undeservedly.
Fear is felt when we realize that such suffering could happen to us as well. Through these emotions, tragedy deeply affects the audience and prepares them for its final purpose.
catharsis: Purification of Emotions.
Catharsis is one of the most important and debated concepts in Aristotle’s theory of tragedy. Aristotle says that tragedy achieves the purgation or purification of pity and fear.
By watching tragic suffering, the audience releases their own suppressed emotions. This emotional release gives them a sense of relief, balance, and mental clarity. As a result, the audience leaves the theatre emotionally purified and spiritually refreshed.
Thus, tragedy does not harm emotions; instead, it controls and refines them.
1. Plot (Mythos)
Aristotle calls the plot the "soul of tragedy" because it is the arrangement of incidents rather than a mere story. He believes the plot must be a complete whole with a beginning, middle, and end, ensuring a logical "cause-and-effect" chain. For the poet, the plot is the primary tool for achieving catharsis, as the sequence of events must lead the audience through pity and fear toward emotional resolution.
2. Character (Ethos)
Character is second in importance because it is through the agents of the play that the plot's moral purpose is revealed. Aristotle suggests that characters should be "good, appropriate, realistic, and consistent," ensuring they are relatable enough for the audience to care about their fate. The poet uses character to demonstrate how a specific "tragic mistake" (hamartia) can lead even a noble person to ruin.
3. Thought (Dianoia)
Thought refers to the themes, arguments, and ideas expressed by the characters as they speak. It is the intellectual power of the play, showing how a character justifies their actions or proves a specific point. To the poet, this element is essential for moving the plot forward through persuasion or revelation, ensuring the dialogue carries weight beyond simple conversation.
4. Diction (Lexis)
Diction is the actual expression of the meaning through words—the choice and arrangement of the language. Aristotle focuses on how the poet uses metaphors, clear phrasing, and elevated tone to distinguish tragedy from everyday speech. The goal of the poet here is to be clear without being mean (common), using language that is beautiful enough to sustain the dignity of the tragic events.
5. Melody (Melos)
Melody, or Song, refers to the musical element of the chorus, which Aristotle believed should be fully integrated into the play. Rather than being an intermission, the poet should treat the chorus as one of the actors, using music to enhance the emotional atmosphere of the scene. It serves to deepen the rhythmic and emotional texture of the performance, making the experience more immersive for the viewer.
6. Spectacle (Opsis)
Spectacle includes the visual aspects of the production, such as costumes, masks, and stage machinery. Aristotle ranks this last because he believes a truly great poet should be able to move an audience through the power of the story alone, without needing visual tricks. While it is the most "eye-catching" element, it belongs more to the craft of the stage manager than to the art of the poet.
Essay:
Topic: Preface to the lyrical ballads by William Wordsworth
Introduction
The Preface to Lyrical Ballads (first published in 1800 and later expanded in 1802) is one of the
most important critical documents in the history of English literature. Written by William Wordsworth, it serves not merely as an introduction to a volume of poems but as a manifesto of Romantic poetry.
In this Preface, Wordsworth explains his poetic theory, his choice of subject matter, his language,
and his conception of poetry and the poet. The ideas expressed in the Preface mark a decisive break from the neoclassical traditions of the eighteenth century and lay the foundation of the Romantic Movement in English literature.
Historical and Literary Background.
The late eighteenth century was dominated by neoclassical poetry, which emphasized order, reason, artificial diction, heroic couplets, and subjects drawn from classical mythology or aristocratic life.
Poetry was often intellectual, formal, and governed by rigid rules. Wordsworth, along with Samuel Taylor Coleridge, sought to challenge these conventions. Lyrical Ballads (1798) represented an experiment in poetic form and subject, and the Preface was written to
justify this experiment to a critical audience that found the poems unconventional.
Thus, the Preface acts as a defense of a new poetic creed rooted in nature, emotion, and common human experience.
Purpose of Poetry According to Wordsworth
Wordsworth defines poetry as a deeply human activity. His famous definition states:
“Poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings: it takes its origin from emotion recollected in tranquillity.”
This definition emphasizes emotion rather than intellect as the source of poetry. However,
Wordsworth does not suggest that poetry is mere emotional outburst. The phrase “recollected in
tranquillity” indicates that the poet reflects calmly upon emotional experiences, allowing them to be shaped into artistic expression. Thus, poetry involves both feeling and thoughtful reflection.
For example, in poems like “Tintern Abbey,” Wordsworth recalls earlier emotional experiences of One of Wordsworth’s most revolutionary ideas is his choice of subject matter. He deliberately chooses incidents and situations from common life, especially rural life, because he believes that in such conditions the essential passions of the heart find clearer expression.
Rustic characters, according to Wordsworth, live closer to nature and are less corrupted by social
vanity and artificiality. Their emotions are therefore more genuine and universal. Poems such as “The Solitary Reaper” and “Michael” illustrate this focus on humble, ordinary individuals whose lives reveal profound emotional truths.
Language of Poetry
Wordsworth strongly criticizes the artificial poetic diction of eighteenth-century poetry. He argues that poetry should be written in the language really used by men, especially by people in humble and rustic life. According to him, such language is more natural, sincere, and capable of expressing genuine emotion.
However, Wordsworth does not mean that poetry should be written in crude or careless language. He refines and selects common speech so that it becomes fit for poetic expression. His aim is to remove the gap between poetic language and everyday human communication.
For instance, poems like “We Are Seven” use simple conversational language to convey deep
philosophical ideas about life, death, and innocence.
Relationship Between Poetry and Prose
Wordsworth argues that there is no essential difference between the language of poetry and prose. The difference lies not in the diction but in the arrangement and emotional intensity of words. Poetry uses metre, which adds pleasure and emotional resonance, but its language should remain natural.
This idea was radical at the time, as poetry was traditionally considered a highly elevated form distinct from ordinary speech. Wordsworth’s view helped democratize poetry and made it accessible to common readers.
Concept of the Poet
Wordsworth presents a new idea of the poet. He describes the poet as:
“A man speaking to men.”
The poet is not a superior or isolated being but someone who possesses greater sensitivity,
imagination, and emotional awareness. The poet feels more deeply, understands human emotions
more profoundly, and can express these feelings effectively.
The poet also has a moral role. By awakening sympathy and emotional understanding in readers, poetry contributes to emotional and moral refinement.
Role of Nature and Imagination
Although not explicitly systematic in the Preface, Wordsworth emphasizes the importance of nature as a source of emotional and spiritual nourishment. Nature shapes human feelings and imagination, and poetry emerges from this interaction.
Imagination, for Wordsworth, transforms ordinary experiences into meaningful poetic expressions. Through imagination, the poet discovers universal truths in simple events.
Reaction Against Neoclassicism.
The Preface is essentially a protest against neoclassical values such as artificiality, rigid forms, and intellectualism. Wordsworth replaces these with simplicity, sincerity, emotional depth, and natural expression.
His emphasis on individual experience and feeling aligns closely with the broader ideals
of Romanticism.
Critical Evaluation
The Preface to Lyrical Ballads has been widely praised for redefining the nature and function of
poetry. However, critics have also pointed out certain contradictions. While Wordsworth advocates simple language, some of his own poems employ elevated diction. Similarly, his claim that metre is merely an added pleasure has been questioned.
Despite these limitations, the Preface remains a landmark in literary criticism. It profoundly influenced later Romantic poets and reshaped poetic theory in English literature.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the Preface to Lyrical Ballads explains Wordsworth’s new ideas about poetry, which focus on feelings, simple life, and natural language. By rejecting artificial rules of poetry, he shows that poetry is a human and emotional art. Therefore, the Preface remains an important work in the study of English literature.
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